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УКРАЇНА
МІНІСТЕРСТВО
ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ
ДЕПАРТАМЕНТ
ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ ВІННИЦЬКОЇ ОБЛАСНОЇ ДЕРЖАВНОЇ АДМІНІСТРАЦІЇ
НАВЧАЛЬНО
МЕТОДИЧНИЙ ЦЕНТР ПРОФТЕХОСВІТИ У ВІННИЦЬКІЙ ОБЛАСТІ
ВИЩЕ
ХУДОЖНЄ ПРОФЕСІЙНО-ТЕХНІЧНЕ УЧИЛИЩЕ №5
Завдання
з англійської мови для учнів
І-ІІІ курсів
Розглянуто на засіданні методичної комісії
гуманітарно-суспільних дисциплін
Упорядник Поліщук
О.В.
Протокол №6 від 12.12.2017 року
«Якщо вдало оберете роботу і вкладете в неї всю душу, то щастя саме вас
знайде»
(К. Д.
Ушинський)
ЗМІСТ
ВСТУП…………………………………………………….....3
1. СIVIL ENGINEERING AND CITY PLANNING………..5
1.1. Текст 1. City Planning……………………………….….5
1.2. Текст 2. Town Design………………………………….10
1.3. Текст 3.Types of Buildings………………………….…14
ЛІТЕРАТУРА………………………………………………18
ДОДАТОК………………………………………………….19
ВИСНОВКИ………………………………………………..27
Вступ
Вашій увазі пропонується навчальний посібник для учнів
будівельних спеціальностей профілю, які
вивчають англійську мову у ПТНЗ.
Навчальною
метою посібника є формування в учнів умінь
спілкуватися на професійну
тематику, читати іншомовну спеціальну
літературу за фахом
середнього рівня складності з безпосереднім
розумінням прочитаного,
здобувати необхідну для виробничої практики інформацію. Для
досягнення визначених цілей у посібнику передбачена регулярна навчальна діяльність, метою якої є створення словника
активної лексики, що включає як найбільш вживані для даної
спеціальності поняття, так і загальні терміни технічного
профілю.
Кожен
урок-підрозділ цього навчального видання має чітку структуру: лексика тексту для активного засвоєння; основний текст; післятекстові вправи різного типу.
На
початку кожного заняття пропонується нова фахова лексика (в англійському та українському варіантах) в обсязі,
необхідному для
розуміння тексту та
активного обговорення зазначених в завданнях матеріалів. Слід
зауважити, що під час вибору і перекладу цих слів ми, головним чином, дотримувалися їх термінологічного значення. Показником того, що лексичний мінімум засвоєно, є набуття умінь тими, хто навчається, вільно, у нормальному мовному темпі відтворити кожне слово в його англійському та українському варіантах. Лише після цього рекомендується переходити до активізації слів у контексті та до безпосередньої роботи з матеріалом.
До
кожного тексту запропоновано систему завдань, метою яких є формування у учнів умінь і навичок усного та
письмового мовлення в межах професійної підготовки,
технічної тематики, спрямованих на подальше
спілкування англійською мовою в реальних ситуаціях виробництва. Відповідно до поставленої мети вправи побудовані так, щоб навчити учнів самостійно працювати з
іншомовним текстом, забезпечити виокремлення основної інформації, її
уточнення і деталізацію.
З
цією метою передбачається виконання вправ, що розвивають уміння виділяти головну думку, факти і групувати їх за принципом спільності; вправ на конкретизацію основної інформації; вправ тематичного узагальнення, що підводять до вміння анотувати та реферувати текст; лексичних вправ, що розвивають мовну здогадку; вправ на розвиток техніки перекладу з метою уточнення розуміння прочитаного. В цілому, в посібнику використовується більше 10 видів вправ.
За
своїм характером вони не тільки навчальні й тренувальні, а ще й стимулюють логічне мислення майбутніх будівельників.
Виконання цих вправ допомагає сформувати у учнів
уміння критичного мислення та навички висловлювати власну думку іноземною
мовою, що дуже важливо для розвитку української молоді в сучасних ринкових умовах,
з їхньою мобільністю, бажанням поїхати за кордон.
За формою завдань вправи поділяються на
окремі види, наприклад, вибір правильного - неправильного
варіанту, сполучення слів у реченні, розташування в
певній послідовності, множинний вибір. За наповненням вони складаються з речень текстів. Їх виконання є по суті багаторазовим читанням уривку з конкретно поставленим в окремому випадку новим завданням. До кожного тексту передбачаються також вправи, що мають на меті розвиток вміння дати вмотивовану відповідь (спростувати твердження, дати відповідь на питання, що обмежується кількістю варіантів).
Зміст Додатків складають фахові текстові
матеріали різного рівня понятійної та мовної складності,
метою яких є розвиток умінь і навичок аналітичного
читання, техніки перекладу.
ENGINEERING AND CITY PLANNING
Text
1. City Planning
1. Запам’ятайте значення наступних
слів і словосполучень для кращого
розуміння тексту.
environment навколишнє середовище; околиці
forecast прогноз
master plan генеральний план забудови
flexible гнучкий
congestion перенаселеність, скупчення
pattern зразок
design проектувати
dwelling житловий
pollution забруднення
survey геодезичний огляд
suburbs передмістя, райони
housing соnstruction житлове
будівництво
recreation відпочинок
define визначати
development (тут) забудова
2. Прочитайте і перекладіть текст. Дайте визначення поняттю «генеральний план».
That
cities should have a plan is now admitted in our time of large-scale construction and
plan-making has become an everyday activity. The purpose of a town plan is to
give the greatest possible freedom to the individual. It does this by controlling
development in such a way that it will take place in the interests of the whole
population.
The new
development absorbs or modifies an existing environment, and so before it can be
designed it is necessary to find out about that environment. It is also necessary to
do research of the trends of population growth, the distance from work to home,
the preferences for different types of dwelling, the amount of sunshine in
rooms, the degree of atmospheric pollution and so on. After the survey is complete
a forecast of future development is made in the form of a map, or series of
maps: the master plan or development plan. As no one can be certain when the development
is to take place and since a society is an organic thing, with life and movement,
the plan of a city must be flexible so that it may extend and renew its
dwellings, reconstruct its working places, complete its communications and avoid
congestion in every part. The plan is never a complete and fixed thing, but
rather one that is continually
being adapted to the changing needs of the community for whom it is designed. Until
quite recent years town
plans were always made as inflexible patterns, but history has shown that a plan of this
description inevitably breaksdown in time.
The
flexible plan, preceded by a survey, is one of the most revolutionary ideas that man has
ever had about the control of his environment. Most towns today have a
characteristic functional pattern as follows: a central core cоntaining the principal shopping center: business
zones,surrounded by suburbs of houses. Most town planners accept the
traditional town
pattern. In the preparation of a master plan they are preoccupied with the definition of the
town center, industrial areas, and the areas of housing; the creation of open
space for recreation, the laying down of a pattern of main roads which run between
the built-up areas (thus leaving them free of through traffic) and connect them to
each other.
The
master plan thus has to define the ultimate growth of the town, but though the master
plan is a diagram, and even a flexible one, it is the structure upon which all
future development is to take place.
3. Згадайте значення наступних
англійських слів і підберіть до них
відповідний переклад з правого стовпчика таблиці.
|
1. description
2. purpose
3. freedom
4. development
5. to exist
6. society
7. recent
8. needs
9. to accept
10. to define
11. to connect
12. complete
13. movement
14. to change
15. main
16. to adapt
17. creation
|
a. повний
b. основний;
c. свобода;
d. змінювати;
f. розвиток
e. рух;
g. оточувати;
h. потреби;
i. опис;
j. ціль, мета
k. визначати
l. створення
m. здійснювати
n. пристосовуватися
o. суспільство
p. з’єднувати
q. приймати
|
4. Вкажіть, які з поданих речень
розкривають головну думку тексту.
2. All
cities should have a plan.
3.
Before a flexible plan is made it is necessary to find out about the existing environment.
4. The
master plan also defines places for active and passive recreation.
5. Вкажіть, до яких підрозділів
тексту можуть підходити запропоновані
назви. Розташуйте їх послідовно до викладу матеріалу.
1.
Features of the traditional town pattern.
2. The
purpose of a master plan.
3. The
purpose of a town plan.
4. What
main points should be included in a survey?
6. Доповніть незакінчені речення
відповідно до змісту тексту одним
із запропонованих варіантів (а, b, с).
1. The
purpose of a town plan is...
a) to
do research of the trends of population growth;
b) to
give the greatest possible freedom to the individual;
c) to
find out about the existing environment.
2.
Before a town plan is designed, it is necessary...
a) to
renew and extend the dwellings, reconstruct the working places;
b) to
make a forecast of future development in the form of a map or a
series
of maps;
c) to
find out about the existing environment.
3.
History has shown that a town plan should be flexible, because…
a) it
should continually be adapted to the changing needs of the
community
for whom it is designed;
b) it
defines the position of schools, shopping centers and business
centers;
c) it
suggests the routes of public transport.
4. The
master plane has to define the ultimate the town and…
a)
noone can be certain when the development is to take place;
b) a
society is an organic thing with life and movement;
c)
therefore it is the structure upon which all future development is to take place.
a) the
idea that in our time plan-making has become an everyday activity;
b) the
definition of the town pattern and the laying down of a pattern of main roads;
c) the
necessity to determine the distance from work to home.
7. Складіть план до тексту із п’яти
пунктів і перекажіть його.
8. Звіртесь з текстом і оберіть
потрібне значення для наведених нижче
виділених слів у словосполученнях і перекладіть їх.
1.
large-scale construction a. шкала; масштаб; розмір;
2.
everyday activity b. щоденний; звичний;
4. development plan d. розвиток;
удосконалення; забудова;
5. master plan e. головний; провідний;
керівний;
6. most towns f. більш за все; найбільший;
більшість;
7. through traffic g. крізь; наскрізний;
без перешкод;
8. town pattern h. зразок; характер; тип;
структура;
9. lay down the pattern i. укласти;
скласти; установити.
9. Дайте відповіді на наступні запитання,
використовуючи один із запропонованих
варіантів.
1. Why
is it necessary to make a survey of the existing environment?
a) It
is because no one is certain when the development is to take place;
b)It is
because the new development absorbs or modifies the environment;
c) It
is because growth is a law of life.
2. What
does a survey consist in?
a) It
consists in completing the town's communications;
b) It
consists in finding out about the environment, in research into the trends of
population growth and the types of dwellings and into atmospheric pollution as well;
c) It
consists in defining a place for recreation.
10. Висловіть заперечення до
наступних невірних тверджень відповідно
до змісту тексту.
З Р А З О К : Most city
planners suggest quite new town patterns.
–
No, they don't. Most city planners do not suggest quite new town patterns.
As
the text says, most town planners accept the traditional town
pattern.
1. The
purpose of a plan is to limit the active life of its population.
2. The
plan is a complete and fixed thing, since the needs of the community do not change.
3.
Growth is a law of life and town growth should not be controlled by any plan.
11. На основі змісту тексту
накресліть план-схему нової забудови. Прокоментуйте її
англійською мовою.
12.
Відповідно до тексту визначте, до якого поняття належить наступне визначення: “It means showing on maps which areas are to locate housing or
different kinds of industry”. Перекладіть
текст усно без словника (Час – 30
хв.).
Planning
Planning,
or town and country planning, is the control of the locations of towns, of industry,
shops, housing, railways, parks, lakes, schools, universities and of the roads
and rail ways to them. Zoning means the planning decisions which have been
made and drawn out on maps, showing which area or zone is for heavy or light
industry or for housing or so on. There are many professions among practicing planners,
including lawyers, architects,
agriculturists, economists, scientists, public health doctors and engineers. A civil
engineer is probably the most suitable person to locate a town site, apart from
such purely civil engineering structures as reservoirs, railways, roads and so on,
which only a civil engineer can locate. The past growth of the
population must be studied carefully with all known plans for future industrial
development for at least the next twenty-five years, so as to predict with some
accuracy the population growth. It is also helpful to know, based on the last count
of the population, what its age grouping is. The water engineers and sewage
treatment engineers of any area will, with the planners, be particularly
interested in any forecasts of population growth.
Text 2. Town Design
1. Запам’ятайте значення наступних слів
і словосполучень для кращого розуміння тексту
to site розташовуватися
a layout план, забудова
urban міський
to pollute забруднювати
convenient зручний
a pavement тротуар
a lamp post вуличний ліхтар
raw materials сировина
quality якість
a vital need життєво необхідна потреба
to restore відновлювати
to arouse викликати
2. Прочитайте і перекладіть текст.
In
considering the design of a town or city we must always remember that the town
must be sited in a healthy position, free from dust, fogs, its layout must not
encourage winds through urban spaces, and it must not pollute its own atmosphere.
It must provide proper standards of space and sunlight to its buildings and
open spaces, and it must be possible to move about the townмeasily and without danger to life. Its parts must be
so arranged that it is a convenient place for dwelling, working and playing.
Connected
with these and many other technical problem is the problem of economy. The
problem must be thoroughly examined which does not suggest that the cheapest
scheme may be the best.
The
town must work properly but it should also give pleasure to those who look at
it. When we say that a town should be beautiful, we do not mean that it should
have some fine parks and noble buildings, we mean that the whole of the environment,
down to the most insignificant detail, should be beautiful. If we examine a
typical urban scene we see all kinds of objects like buildings, lamp posts,
pavements, posters and trees. It is all of them, together with all the other
kinds of objects that are found in the town, that are called the raw materials
of a town design. Each of them down to the least important should be
aesthetically satisfying.
Designing
in terms of past time does not imply the imitation of the existing environment
but respect of the form, colour, texture, and general qualities of the existing
development. That which is being constructed is for immediate use which is not
to suggest that there must be an attempt to ignore the past and be―modern‖.
Future
time must also be thought of in terms of the estimated life of the objects.
Objects like buildings and lamp posts grow old and become out-of-date, and the
designer must select those materials that are adequate for their life, no more
and no less.
Until
comparatively recent times the growth of cities has been without purpose in any
sense. Cities must grow, for growth is a
law of life. But this natural overgrowth should have aroused action to restore
balance. Mere size, as such, is no index of greatness.
All
overgrowth means overcrowding, which is loss of space, one of the vital needs
of cities. The lesson that has to be learned is that natural growth, and all the
other forms of growth have to be made subject to will and intelligence, or the city
must be harmed. This is a certain lesson
of history.
3. Згадайте значення наступних
англійських слів і підберіть до них відповідний переклад з правого стовпчика
таблиці.
|
1. to design
|
a. пропонувати
|
|
2. dwelling
|
b.розширення, забудова
|
|
3. building
|
c. проектувати
|
|
4. through
|
d.
крізь
|
|
5. suggest
|
e.
розглянути
|
|
6.develop
|
f.
житловий будинок
|
|
7. construct
|
g. можливий
|
|
8. growth
|
h. будівля
|
|
9.enviromental
|
i. задовільний, приємний
|
|
10.remember
|
j.
навколишнє середовище
|
4. Визначте, які з поданих нижче речень не
відповідають змісту тексту.
1. When building a
town we should be very careful not to spoil what exists already.
2. The streets and
buildings of existing towns will serve many future generations.
3. When designing a
town we should not forget that its citizens should be able to move about it
without any danger to their life.
4. The economies of a town plan and the
technical problems are closely connected.
5.Scientific
forecast also includes progressive methods of planning.
6. The designer
should select the best building materials for the objects of his planned town.
7. Cities will grow
but their growth must be controlled.
5. Розташуйте наступні пункти плану відповідно до
змісту тексту.
1. The whole town, and even its details, should be
beautiful.
3. The town
designer should remember that his raw materials will exist in the future.
4. All the objects in the town are called the raw
materials of town design.
5. City growth should be controlled.
6. Запропонуйте закінчення до наступних
речень згідно тексту.
1. Before a development plan is made, it is
necessary...
2. The plan of a city has to be flexible because...
3. The traditional town pattern is as follows: ...
7. Перекладіть текст письмово зi словником (Час – 30
хв.).
As a result of new
economic and social forces, the twentieth century witnessed a multiplication of
cities, a transformation of their physical utilities, and an unparalleled
increase in their size – in population, in area, and often in density. The
typical city of the Middle Ages, outside Italy ,
held less than fifteen thousand people –and often less than five thousand –
though Marco Polo had brought back from China London ,
Paris , and Berlin London
Text 3.
Types of Buildings
1. Запам’ятайте значення наступних слів і
словосполучень для кращого розуміння тексту.
building industry будівельна промисловість
managerial staff керівний аппарат
industrial construction промислове будівництво
technological advance технічний прогрес
off-site prefabrication заводське виготовлення
office buildings службові будівлі
storage faculties складські приміщення
site planning планування робіт на будівельному
майданчику
prefabricated structures збірні конструкції
present-day design сучасне проектування
kitchen and sanitary fittings санітарне устаткування
a food-processing plant харчовий комбінат
2. Прочитайте і перекладіть текст .
In technically
developed countries the building industry, comprising skilled and unskilled
workers in many trades, building engineers and architects, managerial staff and
designers, employs a considerable proportion of the available labour force.
Building industry
including residential, public and industrial construction holds a considerable
place in the country’s economy and is being carried out on a large scale. It is the largest industry in the economy of any
country. The problems of construction have grown into major, political issues in
most countries.
Housing is prominent among the factors affecting the
level of living. The improvement of the housing represents a concrete and visible rise in
the general level of living. In many countries residential construction has
constituted at least 12 per cent and frequently more than 25 per cent of all
capital formation. Since in the Ukrainian home building industry is the concern
of the state the research and development in housing technology is carried out
on a national scale and is being paid much attention to.
The ever growing
housing demands have brought to life new methods of construction with great
emphasis upon standardization, new levels of technological advance utilizing
such techniques as off-site prefabrication, precasting, use of reinforced
concrete panels and large-scale site planning. At present, prefabricated
structures and precast elements may be classified into two principal groups –
for residential houses and industrial buildings.
Present-day designs
for residential construction envisage all modern amenities for a dwelling, they
advocate larger, better built and better equipped flats and houses. There is a
marked improvement in the heating and ventilating systems as well as in
hot-water supply, kitchen and sanitary fittings. Many tenants now can afford
better furnishings, refrigerators, washing machines, etc.
A house which is a
physical environment where a family develops is acquiring a new and modern
look.
Industrial buildings comprise another significant type
of construction. This type of construction involves factories, laboratories,
food-processing plants, mines, office buildings; stores, garages, hangars and
other storage facilities, exhibition halls, etc. Each of these functions
demands its own structural solution and techniques. But in general they may be
divided into two classes according to whether the plan must give greater
attention to the size and movement of machinery or of persons. The building
techniques (by techniques we mean building materials and methods) depend upon
the types of buildings.
Modern industrial
buildings have demonstrated the advantages of reinforced concrete arches, metal
frames, glass walls and prefabricated standardized mass produced parts. Steel
was gradually substituted for iron and permitted wider rooms and larger
windows. Windows can be enlarged to' the extent that they constitute a large
fraction of the wall area.
3. Вкажіть, які з поданих нижче речень, розкривають
основну думку тексту.
2. The building
industry comprises skilled and unskilled workers in many trades.
3. Building
industry which includes residential, public and industrial construction is
being carried out on a large scale and it has brought into being new methods
and techniques.
4. There is a
marked improvement in the heating and ventilating systems as well as in
hot-water supply.
4. Розташуйте подані нижче речення послідовно викладу
тексту.
1. The functions of industrial buildings.
2. New methods of housing.
3. Present-day design for residential construction.
4. The advantages of reinforced concrete for modern
industrial buildings.
5. Building industry and national economy.
5. Вкажіть, які з поданих нижче речень належать до
опису житлових будівель, а які – промислових. Згрупуйте речення за запропонованими темами.
6. Доповніть незакінчені речення за змістом
тексту одним із запропонованих варіантів (а, b, с).
1. Modern industrial buildings have demonstrated the
advantages of...
a) hot-water supply and panel heating;
b) reinforced
concrete arches, metal frames, glass walls and prefabricated parts;
c) all modern conveniences for a dwelling.
2. Industrial type of construction involves...
a) better built and better equipped flats and houses;
b) theatres, cinemas, museums, libraries, etc.;
c) factories, food-processing plants, mines, office
buildings, stores, etc.
3. Present-day designs for residential construction
envisage …
a) movement of machinery and persons;
b) application of metal frames and glass walls;
c) all modern
conveniences including hot-water supply and panel heating.
7. Доповніть незакінчені речення необхідними за
змістом аргументами.
1. Housing construction has grown into a political
issue because ...
4. The building techniques depend upon the types of
buildings because ...
8. Висловіть заперечення до наступних невірних
тверджень відповідно до змісту тексту.
З Р А З О К : Housing does not affect the level of
living.
– This statement is incorrect. Housing affects the
level of living. The improvement of housing shows a concrete and visible rise in the
general level ofliving.
1. Not much attention is paid to the problems of
construction.
2. Modern residential
houses and industrial buildings are mostly built of bricks and timber.
3. Modern
industrial buildings have demonstrated the advantages of plastics and ceramics.
9. Запропонуйте не менше, ніж три варіанти відповідей
на кожне із запитань.
1. Why is a house acquiring a new and modern look?
2. What have ever growing housing demands brought into
being?
10. Перечитайте текст і зазначте, які з перерахованих
нижче проблем розглядаються в ньому.
1. New building materials for earthquake-proof
structures.
2. Methods of constructing earthquake-proof
structures.
3. The role of prediction of earthquake threats.
4. Methods of evacuating the inhabitants in case of an
earthquake.
5. Some practical experience in constructing
earthquake proof structures.
ЛІТЕРАТУРА
1. Горбунова Е. В. Современный город : [Пособие по
английскому
языку. Для студентов строит. спец. вузов] / Е. В.
Горбунова, М. М. Гришина, Н. И. Иванова и др. – 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. – М.
: Высш. шк., 1986. – 143 с.
2.Камминг Джеймс. Английский язык для студентов
архитектурных и строительных специальностей : [Учеб.] /Джеймс Камминг ;
Предисл. к рус изданию и англо-рус. словарь проф. В.Н. Бгашева. – М : ООО «Издательство
Астрель» : ООО «Издательство АСТ», 2004. – 270 с.
3.Мансі Є. О. Civil Engineering and Architecture
(цивільне будівництво та архітектура): [Тексти до підручника з англійської мови
для студентів і аспірантів немовних факультетів та студентів мовних факультетів,
які вивчають англійську як другу іноземну мову у вищих навчальних закладах] /
Є. О. Мансі, Т. В. Гончарова. – К. : Арій, 2008. – 80 с.
4.Мусихина О. Н. Английский язык для строителей.
Практикум / О. Н. Мусихина, О. Г. Гисина, В. Л. Яськова. – Ростов н/Д : Феникс,
2004. – 352 с. – Серия «Высшее профессиональное образование».
5.Паніна О. В. Будівництво та навколишнє середовище :
[Навчальний посібник] / О. В. Паніна. – КНУБА, 2003. –160 с
6.Разводовский В. Ф. Английский язык для будущих
инженеров-строителей : [Пособие] / В. Ф. Разводовский. – Гродно : ГрГУ, 2010.
–214 с.
7.Степанова І. С. English for Civil Engineering Career
: [Навчальний посібник з англійської мови для студентів 3–4 курсів інженерно- будівельних
спеціальностей] / І. С.Степанова, О. Р. Яковець. – Вінниця :
ВДТУ, 2000. – 67 с.
ДОДАТОК
Supplementary Texts
(Додаткові тексти)
Text 1. Building Materials
The mortars used in
bricklayers' work consist of an admixture of lime, or Portland cement, and
sand. A knowledge of the properties of these materials is very necessary to the
craftsman, if he is to obtain the best results from his labours.
Lime is
manufactured by the calcination, or burning, of a carbonate of calcium, of
which chalk is the commonest example. During calcination, decomposition occurs,
and carbonic acid and water arc driven off, an oxide of calcium (quicklime)
remaining. If water be added to lumps of quicklime, rapid combination ensues,
great heat and volumes of steam being generated. The lumps disintegrate with a
series of small explosions, and are eventually reduced to a very fine powder.
This process is termed slaking; and when making mortar it is highly necessary
that it should be thoroughly carried out, as any unslaked particles
subsequently expand and seriously damage the work. Limes may be divided into three distinct classes –
Rich limes.
Poor limes.
Hydraulic limes.
Rich Limes contain
not more than G percent of impurities, slake very rapidly, and are entirely
dependent on external agents for setting power. They are chiefly used for
interior plasterers' work. Poor limes contain from 15 percent to 30 percent of
useless impurities, and possess the general properties of rich limes, only to a
lesser decree. They are only fit for unimportant work.
Hydraulic limes
contain certain proportions of impurities, which, during calcination, combine
with the lime, and endow it with the valuable property of setting under water,
or without external agents. The proportions of these impurities determine
whether a.lime is eminently, moderately, or only feebly ydraulic. The principal
limes used in making mortar for constructional work are of the Greys tone
variety. These have hydraulic properties, and will take a large proportion of
sand, without weakening their setting powers. The usual proportions are from
two to four parts of sand to one of lime.
The setting of lime
depends largely upon its absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere. The
particles return to their original form of a carbonate, and crystallize. These
crystals have a tendency to adhere to anything rough, as sand or the surfaces
of a brick.
Pure lime mortars built into thick walls never harden
in the interior. The crystallization of the exterior of the joint when set prevents
access of carbon dioxide to the inside of the wall. For this reason, pure lime
mortars should not be used for constructional work, only those which are not
entirely dependent on external agents. For more important work, where great
strength is required, Portland cement is used instead of lime.
Portland Cement is
an artificial cement, manufactured by calcining chalk and clay, or river mud
containing certain chemical constituents in definite proportions. The chalk and
clay are ground and mixed into a slurry, which after being strained through
very fine sieves, is pumped into an orifice in the top of an inclined revolving
cylinder. A blast of intense flame is directed through this cylinder, which is
lined with firebrick. As the slurry drops through the flame, it is burned into
small clinkers, which are afterwards ground exceedingly fine in specially
constructed mills, and then passed through sieves, having as many as 35,000
meshes to the square inch. The powder is aerated by being spread on wooden
floors, with an occasional turning, to ensure the thorough slaking and cooling
of all particles. It is then put up in
sacks ready for use.
This process of
aeration has now been superseded in many cement works by the addition of a
small quantity of gypsum (plaster of Paris), which retards the otherwise
rapid-setting tendency of a freshly-ground cement.
Sand. – When used for
mortar, sand should be angular in grain, free from clay or dirt, and moderately
coarse. If too fine, the proportion of lime or cement will have to be
considerably increased.
Mixing. – This should be carried out on a
close-boarded platform, or stage.
In the case of lime
mortar, sand is best measured when brought to the stage, and the heap opened
out into the form of a ring. The correct proportion of lime is measured into
the ring, clean water being added to start the slaking, and more as the process
advances. When the generation of steam ceases, the mass should be stirred with
a long-handled, hoe-shaped tool called a larry, until a thick, creamlike consistency
is obtained. The sand may then be gradually drawn into and thoroughly mixed
with the lime by means of the same tool. The mortar should be allowed to stand
for some days before use and again well beaten up with larry and shovel.
For cement mortar,
the sand is measured and heaped on the stage, and a bottomless box of definite
capacity is placed on the top of the sand. This box is filled with cement, and
then removed. The dry heap is turned over at least twice and opened out into a
ring. Clean water is added in sufficient quantity to wet the whole mass, which
is then thoroughly mixed in the same manner as lime mortar.
Cement mortar
should be used directly after being made, and should not be subjected to
further mixing after setting has commenced. If this is done, the cement rapidly
loses its strength, and further repetition would render it practically inert.
The proportions of
sand and cement or lime, are from two to four parts of sand to one part of
either, according to the class of work for which the mortar is required.
Another mortar mix
which is becoming popular, and which some engineers have proved to be stronger
for some classes of work such as reinforced brickwork, is 4 parts of sand to 1
part of Portland cement and l/8th part of lime.
On large works,
mixing is usually performed in a mortar mill, which consists of a pair of heavy
millstones and a pan, or container into which the measured ingredients are fed.
The mill, by reason of its large and rapid output, has a distinct advantage
over hand-mixing. It also has many disadvantages unless operated by a reliable
man. Grinding may be carried on to such a stage that the sand is ground so fine
as to render the original quantity of lime or cement inadequate. Cement mortars
may be also ground long after the initial setting has commenced, and thus
rendered useless for the required purpose.
Text 2. Building Stones
Classification –
Building stones are classified in a general way under the heading of igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous Rocks. – These are formed by fusion below the
earth's surface.
Sedimentary Rocks.
– All sedimentary rocks, which include sandstones and limestones, come under
this heading. They are formed in deposits by the agency of water or winds, and
are known as stratified rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks.
— These may be either of the above when, changed in formation by heat and
pressure. Marbles and slates come under
this heading.
Granites. –
Granites are igneous rocks made up of granular particles, the latter being
crystalline, and usually composed of quartz, felspar, and mica.
Granite has never
flowed out over the earth's surface as lava, but became consolidated at a great
depth under extreme pressure.
Quartz. – The
durability of granite depends largely upon the amount of quartz and its
combination with other minerals, quartz being practically indestructible.
Quartz, sand, and the chemical named silica may be said to be interchangeable
terms.
Felspar is the most
easily distinguished mineral and its colour varies considerably. The pink
felspar is known as orthoclase, and is a potash felspar; this constituent is
very characteristic in granite. Sometimes the white soda or lime felspar known
as plagioclase is found. Felspars are commonly found with about equal
quantities of quartz.
Mica is of two
kinds: Muscovite, which is potash mica (light); and biotite, which is a dark
brown, iron and other substances being present. The light micas are more stable.
The proportions of mica should be small compared with
quartz and felspar.
Hornblende and
augite sometimes occur and take the place of mica; the stone is then known as a
syenite.
Iron pyrites produce
oxidation and hydration either in the form of local spots, or as a uniform
tinge of brown, and should always be looked upon as a fault.
The characteristics
of a good granite are: fineness of grain, the disposition of the various
minerals forming the mass, and the high percentage of quartz present.
Sandstones. –
Sandstones are formed by the disruption of preexisting rocks due to the action
of winds or moving water, the particles being deposited in beds, or strata. The
chief constituents are the original quartz crystals (or grains) and the cement
that binds them together. The quality of a sandstone depends upon the cementing
material. The presence of an inferior cementing material is the chief cause of
disintegration upon the exposed surfaces. The cementing materials are numerous,
and may be silica, clay, iron oxides, calcite, or dolomite. Usually there is a
combination of these substances, but one kind predominates. Sometimes the
grains, or quartz crystals, are consolidated by heat and pressure as in quartzite.
Sandstones vary from fine grain to coarse grit stone, whilst the colour depends
chiefly upon the cementing material. Red, brown, and yellow are due to oxide of
iron. White owes its colour to the combination of clear quartz with white
argillaceous or clay-containing matter free from stains.
If the stone
contains a high percentage of mica distributed along the planes of bedding it
is known as a micaceous sandstone. Great care should be exercised in placing
sandstones in the building so that the laminae are horizontal.
Limestones. – The
chief characteristic of limestones is the presence of a largе proportion of carbonate of lime. They were formed
chiefly by the accumulation of shells or calcareous skeletons of marine or
fresh water organisms, which were deposited as sediment in the waters of seas
or lakes. The common or chalk limestones are more suited for the production of
lime. Thevoolitic limestones are of marine origin; they arc' composed chiefly
of carbonate of lime, with other substances, such as carbonate of magnesia,
silica, alumina, and iron. The oolite resembles the roe of a fish, and results
from the accumulation of carbonate of lime around the small nuclei of
fragmentary shells or grains of mud or sand. They are of spherical or oval
shape, and can easily be seen with the naked eye. They vary in hardness and
texture; some are fairly fine, others coarse and porous.
All limestones are
soft when first quarried, but harden on- exposure to the atmosphere. The stone
should be uniform in colour throughout in the case of both sandstones and
limestones.
Text 3.
Concrete Structures
Introduction. –
Reinforced concrete is an excellent building material, adaptable to many uses. It is strong, lire-resistant, and durable when well
made.
On the other hand,
it is a heavy material, and its use generally results in rather bulky members
so that its greatest field of usefulness is in relatively low buildings and in
structures where its mass, rigidity, and strength arc advantageous. Tall
buildings may be made of reinforced concrete but, when they are more than six
or eight stories high, it is desirable to question the economy and advisability
of such construction for industrial purposes. Structures built of concrete should be planned upon the basis of the characteristics
of the material itself, and upon the essential nature of the construction
processes. Concrete is not a substitute for structural steel in terms of member
for member. Architects and engineers, figuratively, should throw away many of their
ideas derived from experience with steel-framed structures, then tackle the
project at hand on the basis of utilizing the concrete to the best advantage.
Many have done this and are now producing plans for concrete structures that
are both attractive and practical.
Here, as elsewhere,
the designer should make sure that concrete Is the most desirable material for
a structure and should give careful consideration to the general proportions of
the structure and to the uses for which it is intended. Because of the nature
of concrete construction, careful planning is needed in the first place because
extensive alterations and radical changes of future use are likely to be both
difficult and expensive.
Some General
Principles. – The planning and the detail designing of concrete structures are
so influenced and circumscribed by practical procedures and considerations that
the engineer should attack such problems entirely upon the basis of the best
use of this particular material. He should remember constantly that, except for
possible precast members, he is creating a structure to be made of
"artificial stone", of material placed in position in a plastic state
so that it must be supported temporarily by something other than itself, and of
a material that will and should conform to every detail of the surfaces with
which it is in contact when the plastic concrete is deposited.
Not only does
concrete improve with the use of good materials, but its quality depends
largely upon the excellence of the workmanship used in its manufacture, the
adequacy and thoroughness of its placement, and the care with which it is
cured. The attainment of the intended high quality is almost completely in the
hands of the artisans, who, in the field, convert heaps of aggregates, barrels
of cement, and gallons of water into a structure for the use of man. Not only
does its strength depend upon highly skilled labor, but the quality of its
surface and the beauty of its appearance do likewise. It is foolish to forget these
obvious truths. Yet occasionally such important operations are delegated to
unskilled, inefficient workmen. Fortunately,
this is the exception. Expert workmen produce surprisingly fine results.
When planning
concrete work, an engineer should consider the following matters, along with
many others:
1. Poured-concrete
structures ordinarily try to act largely as continuous frames. This is inherent in their nature. In fact, if
continuity is to be avoided without detrimental or objectionable cracking,
special measures generally must be employed. Hence, the advantages of continuity can and should be utilized.
2. Since concrete
is especially advantageous in resisting compression, its use is more desirable
for columns and walls than for long- span beams. The arch, the dome, the
cylindrical barrel, the rigid frame, the flat slab, and beam-and-girder construction
are among the types most suitable for the use of concrete.
3. So-called
"framed" connection are difficult to make in reinforced concrete.
Junctions of beams to beams should be made by pouring the adjoining members
monolithically if possible because, otherwise, it is difficult to provide for
transverse shearing forces. When beams rest upon walls or columns, the construction
joints should be located so that each beam has adequate bearing upon the supporting
member.
4. Not only is
simplicity of shape desirable in order to minimize the cost of formwork, but
the duplication of parts permits the revise of forms. It is obvious that heavy
forms high in the air are costly.
5. Architectural
details should be planned with consideration not only for the fabrication of
the forms but also for the removal or stripping of them without damage to the
concrete, or undue harm to the forms themselves. The details should also be
such that the concrete will conform completely and easily to all the contours,
projections, and recesses of the forms without spelling, honeycombing,
slumping, air-trapping, and surface imperfections.
6. As the desired
surface texture of concrete structures is something to determine carefully in
advance, the structure should be planned so that the desired effects will be
attained. Good effects will not just happen of their own accord; the bad ones
do that.
7. The sequence of
pours and the location of construction joints should be determined during the general
planning of a structure in order to ascertain that what is desired can be built
practicably. The volume of concrete that can be placed in one continuous pour
depends upon the capacity of the equipment and upon the nature and details of
the structure. It is very important to avoid the incomplete placing of a pour
by depositing a portion of the concrete at one time, then pouring additional
concrete alongside or on top of the first part after the latter has only partly
set. Settlement or displacement of forms, an attempt to vibrate or otherwise
compact the concrete, and any other operations that disturb the original
material after it has partially set but is not yet strong will generally damage
the concrete. After the first part has hardened, there is likely to be an unexpected
plane of weakness at the junction with that deposited later. Of course, a tall
pier shaft may be poured almost continuously and over a period of many hours if
the work is performed properly. However, this is seldom easy of accomplishment
in the case of extensive foundations, walls, and floors.
Precast Concrete. –
The use of precast-concrete members and parts of members is a matter that
warrants careful study. The possible savings in formwork are obvious, but the
handling of heavy pieces in the field may require special equipment. If
portions of a structure are to be precast, the original planning should be
based upon this fact, and all details should be worked out accordingly. Precast
parts can be incorporated in an otherwise poured-in-place structure, but
provision should be made for the support of these heavy pieces during
construction. Most poured-concrete structures gain much from the stiffness
derived from the continuity secured at the junctions of parts, whereas a building
made of heavy, loosely connected, precast parts may be inherently undesirable.
It is possible, however, to connect precast parts by means of poured sections
at the junctions if proper bonding of reinforcement, is provided.
Although such
procedures have not been common in the past, their use shouldbe investigated
with an open mind. Because of the
possibility of appreciable economies, the use of precast parts will undoubtedly
increase in the future.
ВИСНОВКИ
Виконання цих вправ допомагає сформувати у учнів уміння критичного мислення та навички висловлювати власну думку іноземною мовою, що дуже важливо для розвитку української молоді в сучасних ринкових умовах, з їхньою мобільністю, бажанням поїхати за кордон.
За формою завдань вправи поділяються на окремі види, наприклад, вибір правильного - неправильного варіанту, сполучення слів у реченні, розташування в певній послідовності, множинний вибір. За наповненням вони складаються з речень текстів. Їх виконання є по суті багаторазовим читанням уривку з конкретно поставленим в окремому випадку новим завданням. До кожного тексту передбачаються також вправи, що мають на меті розвиток вміння дати вмотивовану відповідь (спростувати твердження, дати відповідь на питання, що обмежується кількістю варіантів).
Зміст Додатків складають фахові текстові матеріали різного рівня понятійної та мовної складності, метою яких є розвиток умінь і навичок аналітичного читання, техніки перекладу.
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