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УКРАЇНА

МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ

ДЕПАРТАМЕНТ ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ ВІННИЦЬКОЇ ОБЛАСНОЇ ДЕРЖАВНОЇ АДМІНІСТРАЦІЇ

НАВЧАЛЬНО МЕТОДИЧНИЙ ЦЕНТР ПРОФТЕХОСВІТИ У ВІННИЦЬКІЙ ОБЛАСТІ

ВИЩЕ ХУДОЖНЄ ПРОФЕСІЙНО-ТЕХНІЧНЕ УЧИЛИЩЕ №5

Завдання

з англійської мови для учнів І-ІІІ курсів

                                                                  

Розглянуто на засіданні методичної комісії гуманітарно-суспільних дисциплін

Упорядник                                                                 Поліщук О.В.

Протокол №6         від 12.12.2017  року

«Якщо вдало оберете роботу і вкладете в неї всю душу, то щастя саме вас знайде»

(К. Д. Ушинський)

ЗМІСТ

ВСТУП…………………………………………………….....3

1. СIVIL ENGINEERING AND CITY PLANNING………..5

1.1. Текст 1. City Planning……………………………….….5

1.2. Текст 2. Town Design………………………………….10

1.3. Текст 3.Types of Buildings………………………….…14

ЛІТЕРАТУРА………………………………………………18

ДОДАТОК………………………………………………….19

ВИСНОВКИ………………………………………………..27

                                                  Вступ

Вашій увазі пропонується навчальний посібник для учнів будівельних спеціальностей  профілю, які вивчають англійську мову у ПТНЗ.

Навчальною метою посібника є формування в учнів умінь

спілкуватися на професійну тематику, читати іншомовну спеціальну

літературу за фахом середнього рівня складності з безпосереднім

розумінням прочитаного, здобувати необхідну для виробничої практики інформацію. Для досягнення визначених цілей у посібнику передбачена регулярна навчальна діяльність, метою якої є створення словника активної лексики, що включає як найбільш вживані для даної спеціальності поняття, так і загальні терміни технічного профілю.

Кожен урок-підрозділ цього навчального видання має чітку структуру: лексика тексту для активного засвоєння; основний текст; післятекстові вправи різного типу.

На початку кожного заняття пропонується нова фахова лексика (в англійському та українському варіантах) в обсязі, необхідному для

розуміння тексту та активного обговорення зазначених в завданнях матеріалів. Слід зауважити, що під час вибору і перекладу цих слів ми, головним чином, дотримувалися їх термінологічного значення. Показником того, що лексичний мінімум засвоєно, є набуття умінь тими, хто навчається, вільно, у нормальному мовному темпі відтворити кожне слово в його англійському та українському варіантах. Лише після цього рекомендується переходити до активізації слів у контексті та до безпосередньої роботи з матеріалом.

До кожного тексту запропоновано систему завдань, метою яких є формування у учнів умінь і навичок усного та письмового мовлення в межах професійної підготовки, технічної тематики, спрямованих на подальше спілкування англійською мовою в реальних ситуаціях виробництва. Відповідно до поставленої мети вправи побудовані так, щоб навчити учнів самостійно працювати з іншомовним текстом, забезпечити виокремлення основної інформації, її уточнення і деталізацію.

З цією метою передбачається виконання вправ, що розвивають уміння виділяти головну думку, факти і групувати їх за принципом спільності; вправ на конкретизацію основної інформації; вправ тематичного узагальнення, що підводять до вміння анотувати та реферувати текст; лексичних вправ, що розвивають мовну здогадку; вправ на розвиток техніки перекладу з метою уточнення розуміння прочитаного. В цілому, в посібнику використовується більше 10 видів вправ.

За своїм характером вони не тільки навчальні й тренувальні, а ще й стимулюють логічне мислення майбутніх будівельників.

Виконання цих вправ допомагає сформувати у учнів уміння критичного мислення та навички висловлювати власну думку іноземною мовою, що дуже важливо для розвитку української молоді в сучасних ринкових умовах, з їхньою мобільністю, бажанням поїхати за кордон.

За формою завдань вправи поділяються на окремі види, наприклад, вибір правильного - неправильного варіанту, сполучення слів у реченні, розташування в певній послідовності, множинний вибір. За наповненням вони складаються з речень текстів. Їх виконання є по суті багаторазовим читанням уривку з конкретно поставленим в окремому випадку новим завданням. До кожного тексту передбачаються також вправи, що мають на меті розвиток вміння дати вмотивовану відповідь (спростувати твердження, дати відповідь на питання, що обмежується кількістю варіантів).

Зміст Додатків складають фахові текстові матеріали різного рівня понятійної та мовної складності, метою яких є розвиток умінь і навичок аналітичного читання, техніки перекладу.

ENGINEERING AND CITY PLANNING

Text 1. City Planning

1. Запам’ятайте значення наступних слів і словосполучень для кращого розуміння тексту.

environment навколишнє середовище; околиці

forecast прогноз

master plan генеральний план забудови

flexible гнучкий

congestion перенаселеність, скупчення

pattern зразок

design проектувати

dwelling житловий

pollution забруднення

survey геодезичний огляд

suburbs передмістя, райони

housing соnstruction житлове будівництво

recreation відпочинок

define визначати

development (тут) забудова

2. Прочитайте і перекладіть текст. Дайте визначення поняттю «генеральний план».

That cities should have a plan is now admitted in our time of large-scale construction and plan-making has become an everyday activity. The purpose of a town plan is to give the greatest possible freedom to the individual. It does this by controlling development in such a way that it will take place in the interests of the whole population.

The new development absorbs or modifies an existing environment, and so before it can be designed it is necessary to find out about that environment. It is also necessary to do research of the trends of population growth, the distance from work to home, the preferences for different types of dwelling, the amount of sunshine in rooms, the degree of atmospheric pollution and so on. After the survey is complete a forecast of future development is made in the form of a map, or series of maps: the master plan or development plan. As no one can be certain when the development is to take place and since a society is an organic thing, with life and movement, the plan of a city must be flexible so that it may extend and renew its dwellings, reconstruct its working places, complete its communications and avoid congestion in every part. The plan is never a complete and fixed thing, but rather one that is continually being adapted to the changing needs of the community for whom it is designed. Until quite recent years town plans were always made as inflexible patterns, but history has shown that a plan of this description inevitably breaksdown in time.

The flexible plan, preceded by a survey, is one of the most revolutionary ideas that man has ever had about the control of his environment. Most towns today have a characteristic functional pattern as follows: a central core cоntaining the principal shopping center: business zones,surrounded by suburbs of houses. Most town planners accept the traditional town pattern. In the preparation of a master plan they are preoccupied with the definition of the town center, industrial areas, and the areas of housing; the creation of open space for recreation, the laying down of a pattern of main roads which run between the built-up areas (thus leaving them free of through traffic) and connect them to each other.

The master plan thus has to define the ultimate growth of the town, but though the master plan is a diagram, and even a flexible one, it is the structure upon which all future development is to take place.

3. Згадайте значення наступних англійських слів і підберіть до них відповідний переклад з правого стовпчика таблиці.

1. description                                                                       2. purpose                                                                          3. freedom                                                                           4. development                                                                5. to exist                                                                             6. society                                                                 7. recent                                                                           8. needs                                                                                9. to accept                                                                           10. to define                                                                       11. to connect 12. complete                                                                      13. movement                                                            14. to change                                                      15. main                                                                    16. to adapt                                                                  17. creation

a. повний b. основний; c. свобода; d. змінювати; f. розвиток e. рух; g. оточувати; h. потреби; i. опис; j. ціль, мета k. визначати l. створення m. здійснювати n. пристосовуватися o. суспільство p. з’єднувати q. приймати

4. Вкажіть, які з поданих речень розкривають головну думку тексту.

1. In the preparation of the master plan it is necessary to define the town zones.

2. All cities should have a plan.

3. Before a flexible plan is made it is necessary to find out about the existing environment.

4. The master plan also defines places for active and passive recreation.

5. Вкажіть, до яких підрозділів тексту можуть підходити запропоновані назви. Розташуйте їх послідовно до викладу матеріалу.

1. Features of the traditional town pattern.

2. The purpose of a master plan.

3. The purpose of a town plan.

4. What main points should be included in a survey?

6. Доповніть незакінчені речення відповідно до змісту тексту одним із запропонованих варіантів (а, b, с).

1. The purpose of a town plan is...

a) to do research of the trends of population growth;

b) to give the greatest possible freedom to the individual;

c) to find out about the existing environment.

2. Before a town plan is designed, it is necessary...

a) to renew and extend the dwellings, reconstruct the working places;

b) to make a forecast of future development in the form of a map or a

series of maps;

c) to find out about the existing environment.

3. History has shown that a town plan should be flexible, because…

a) it should continually be adapted to the changing needs of the

community for whom it is designed;

b) it defines the position of schools, shopping centers and business

centers;

c) it suggests the routes of public transport.

4. The master plane has to define the ultimate the town and…

a) noone can be certain when the development is to take place;

b) a society is an organic thing with life and movement;

c) therefore it is the structure upon which all future development is to take place.

5. In the preparation of a master plan the planners are preoccupied with…

a) the idea that in our time plan-making has become an everyday activity;

b) the definition of the town pattern and the laying down of a pattern of main roads;

c) the necessity to determine the distance from work to home.

7. Складіть план до тексту із п’яти пунктів і перекажіть його.

8. Звіртесь з текстом і оберіть потрібне значення для наведених нижче виділених слів у словосполученнях і перекладіть їх.

1. large-scale construction a. шкала; масштаб; розмір;

2. everyday activity b. щоденний; звичний;

3. in such a way c. дорога; засіб; спосіб; шлях;

4. development plan d. розвиток; удосконалення; забудова;

5. master plan e. головний; провідний; керівний;

6. most towns f. більш за все; найбільший; більшість;

7. through traffic g. крізь; наскрізний; без перешкод;

8. town pattern h. зразок; характер; тип; структура;

9. lay down the pattern i. укласти; скласти; установити.

9. Дайте відповіді на наступні запитання, використовуючи один із запропонованих варіантів.

1. Why is it necessary to make a survey of the existing environment?

a) It is because no one is certain when the development is to take place;

b)It is because the new development absorbs or modifies the environment;

c) It is because growth is a law of life.

2. What does a survey consist in?

a) It consists in completing the town's communications;

b) It consists in finding out about the environment, in research into the trends of population growth and the types of dwellings and into atmospheric pollution as well;

c) It consists in defining a place for recreation.

10. Висловіть заперечення до наступних невірних тверджень відповідно до змісту тексту.

З Р А З О К : Most city planners suggest quite new town patterns.

– No, they don't. Most city planners do not suggest quite new town patterns.

As the text says, most town planners accept the traditional town pattern.

1. The purpose of a plan is to limit the active life of its population.

2. The plan is a complete and fixed thing, since the needs of the community do not change.

3. Growth is a law of life and town growth should not be controlled by any plan.

11. На основі змісту тексту накресліть план-схему нової забудови. Прокоментуйте її англійською мовою.

12. Відповідно до тексту визначте, до якого поняття належить наступне визначення: “It means showing on maps which areas are to locate housing or different kinds of industry”. Перекладіть текст усно без словника (Час – 30 хв.).

Planning

Planning, or town and country planning, is the control of the locations of towns, of industry, shops, housing, railways, parks, lakes, schools, universities and of the roads and rail ways to them. Zoning means the planning decisions which have been made and drawn out on maps, showing which area or zone is for heavy or light industry or for housing or so on. There are many professions among practicing planners, including lawyers, architects, agriculturists, economists, scientists, public health doctors and engineers. A civil engineer is probably the most suitable person to locate a town site, apart from such purely civil engineering structures as reservoirs, railways, roads and so on, which only a civil engineer can locate. The past growth of the population must be studied carefully with all known plans for future industrial development for at least the next twenty-five years, so as to predict with some accuracy the population growth. It is also helpful to know, based on the last count of the population, what its age grouping is. The water engineers and sewage treatment engineers of any area will, with the planners, be particularly interested in any forecasts of population growth.

Text 2. Town Design

1. Запам’ятайте значення наступних слів і словосполучень для кращого розуміння тексту

to site розташовуватися

a layout план, забудова

urban міський

to pollute забруднювати

convenient зручний

a pavement тротуар

a lamp post вуличний ліхтар

raw materials сировина

quality якість

a vital need життєво необхідна потреба

to restore відновлювати

to arouse викликати

2. Прочитайте і перекладіть текст.

In considering the design of a town or city we must always remember that the town must be sited in a healthy position, free from dust, fogs, its layout must not encourage winds through urban spaces, and it must not pollute its own atmosphere. It must provide proper standards of space and sunlight to its buildings and open spaces, and it must be possible to move about the townмeasily and without danger to life. Its parts must be so arranged that it is a convenient place for dwelling, working and playing.

Connected with these and many other technical problem is the problem of economy. The problem must be thoroughly examined which does not suggest that the cheapest scheme may be the best.

The town must work properly but it should also give pleasure to those who look at it. When we say that a town should be beautiful, we do not mean that it should have some fine parks and noble buildings, we mean that the whole of the environment, down to the most insignificant detail, should be beautiful. If we examine a typical urban scene we see all kinds of objects like buildings, lamp posts, pavements, posters and trees. It is all of them, together with all the other kinds of objects that are found in the town, that are called the raw materials of a town design. Each of them down to the least important should be aesthetically satisfying.

Designing in terms of past time does not imply the imitation of the existing environment but respect of the form, colour, texture, and general qualities of the existing development. That which is being constructed is for immediate use which is not to suggest that there must be an attempt to ignore the past and be―modern‖.

Future time must also be thought of in terms of the estimated life of the objects. Objects like buildings and lamp posts grow old and become out-of-date, and the designer must select those materials that are adequate for their life, no more and no less.

Until comparatively recent times the growth of cities has been without purpose in any sense. Cities must grow, for growth is a law of life. But this natural overgrowth should have aroused action to restore balance. Mere size, as such, is no index of greatness.

All overgrowth means overcrowding, which is loss of space, one of the vital needs of cities. The lesson that has to be learned is that natural growth, and all the other forms of growth have to be made subject to will and intelligence, or the city must be harmed. This is a certain lesson of history.

3. Згадайте значення наступних англійських слів і підберіть до них відповідний переклад з правого стовпчика таблиці.

1. to design	a. пропонувати
2. dwelling	b.розширення, забудова
3. building	c. проектувати
4. through	d. крізь
5. suggest	e. розглянути
6.develop	f. житловий будинок
7. construct	g. можливий
8. growth	h. будівля
9.enviromental	i. задовільний, приємний
10.remember	j. навколишнє середовище

4. Визначте, які з поданих нижче речень не відповідають змісту тексту.

1. When building a town we should be very careful not to spoil what exists already.

2. The streets and buildings of existing towns will serve many future generations.

3. When designing a town we should not forget that its citizens should be able to move about it without any danger to their life.

 4. The economies of a town plan and the technical problems are closely connected.

5.Scientific forecast also includes progressive methods of planning.

6. The designer should select the best building materials for the objects of his planned town.

7. Cities will grow but their growth must be controlled.

5. Розташуйте наступні пункти плану відповідно до змісту тексту.

1. The whole town, and even its details, should be beautiful.

2. A town should be a nice place to live, to work and to rest in.

3. The town designer should remember that his raw materials will exist in the future.

4. All the objects in the town are called the raw materials of town design.

5. City growth should be controlled.

6. Запропонуйте закінчення до наступних речень згідно тексту.

1. Before a development plan is made, it is necessary...

2. The plan of a city has to be flexible because...

3. The traditional town pattern is as follows: ...

7. Перекладіть текст письмово зi словником (Час – 30 хв.).

As a result of new economic and social forces, the twentieth century witnessed a multiplication of cities, a transformation of their physical utilities, and an unparalleled increase in their size – in population, in area, and often in density. The typical city of the Middle Ages, outside Italy, held less than fifteen thousand people –and often less than five thousand – though Marco Polo had brought back from China accounts of cities with a million inhabitants. As a result of the expansion of financial, industrial, and political power from the year of 1500 onwards, the newer centres often had more than a hundred thousand people. In the twentieth century, cities of a hundred thousand became common and those of a million, like London, Paris, and Berlin, became possible. Indeed the forces that created giant cities were in operation before the technical means to make them habitable were available: London had a million inhabitants at a time (in 1800) when in many quarters the water supply was turned on only twice a week.

Text 3. Types of Buildings

1. Запам’ятайте значення наступних слів і словосполучень для кращого розуміння тексту.

building industry будівельна промисловість

managerial staff керівний аппарат

industrial construction промислове будівництво

technological advance технічний прогрес

off-site prefabrication заводське виготовлення

office buildings службові будівлі

storage faculties складські приміщення

site planning планування робіт на будівельному

майданчику

prefabricated structures збірні конструкції

present-day design сучасне проектування

kitchen and sanitary fittings санітарне устаткування

a food-processing plant харчовий комбінат

2. Прочитайте і перекладіть текст .

In technically developed countries the building industry, comprising skilled and unskilled workers in many trades, building engineers and architects, managerial staff and designers, employs a considerable proportion of the available labour force.

Building industry including residential, public and industrial construction holds a considerable place in the country’s economy and is being carried out on a large scale. It is the largest industry in the economy of any country. The problems of construction have grown into major, political issues in most countries.

Housing is prominent among the factors affecting the level of living. The improvement of the housing represents a concrete and visible rise in the general level of living. In many countries residential construction has constituted at least 12 per cent and frequently more than 25 per cent of all capital formation. Since in the Ukrainian home building industry is the concern of the state the research and development in housing technology is carried out on a national scale and is being paid much attention to.

The ever growing housing demands have brought to life new methods of construction with great emphasis upon standardization, new levels of technological advance utilizing such techniques as off-site prefabrication, precasting, use of reinforced concrete panels and large-scale site planning. At present, prefabricated structures and precast elements may be classified into two principal groups – for residential houses and industrial buildings.

Present-day designs for residential construction envisage all modern amenities for a dwelling, they advocate larger, better built and better equipped flats and houses. There is a marked improvement in the heating and ventilating systems as well as in hot-water supply, kitchen and sanitary fittings. Many tenants now can afford better furnishings, refrigerators, washing machines, etc.

A house which is a physical environment where a family develops is acquiring a new and modern look.

Industrial buildings comprise another significant type of construction. This type of construction involves factories, laboratories, food-processing plants, mines, office buildings; stores, garages, hangars and other storage facilities, exhibition halls, etc. Each of these functions demands its own structural solution and techniques. But in general they may be divided into two classes according to whether the plan must give greater attention to the size and movement of machinery or of persons. The building techniques (by techniques we mean building materials and methods) depend upon the types of buildings.

Modern industrial buildings have demonstrated the advantages of reinforced concrete arches, metal frames, glass walls and prefabricated standardized mass produced parts. Steel was gradually substituted for iron and permitted wider rooms and larger windows. Windows can be enlarged to' the extent that they constitute a large fraction of the wall area.

3. Вкажіть, які з поданих нижче речень, розкривають основну думку тексту.

1. In our country home building industry is the concern of the state.

2. The building industry comprises skilled and unskilled workers in many trades.

3. Building industry which includes residential, public and industrial construction is being carried out on a large scale and it has brought into being new methods and techniques.

4. There is a marked improvement in the heating and ventilating systems as well as in hot-water supply.

4. Розташуйте подані нижче речення послідовно викладу тексту.

1. The functions of industrial buildings.

2. New methods of housing.

3. Present-day design for residential construction.

4. The advantages of reinforced concrete for modern industrial buildings.

5. Building industry and national economy.

5. Вкажіть, які з поданих нижче речень належать до опису житлових будівель, а які – промислових. Згрупуйте речення за запропонованими темами.

1. In many countries residential construction has constituted at least 12 per cent of all capital formation. 2. The problem of housing has grown into a major, political issue in most countries. 3. Industrial buildings comprise another significant type of construction. 4. Modern buildings have demonstrated the advantages of reinforced concrete arches, total frames and glass walls. 5. The differing functions of industrial buildings require their own structural solutions and techniques. 6. Present-day designs for housing envisage all modern conveniences and sanitary fittings. 7. Buildings may be divided into two classes according to whether the plan must give greater attention to the size and movement of machinery or of persons. 8. Windows can be enlarged to the extent that they constitute a large fraction of the wall area. 9. A house which is a physical environment where a family develops is acquiring a new and modern look.

6. Доповніть незакінчені речення за змістом тексту одним із запропонованих варіантів (а, b, с).

1. Modern industrial buildings have demonstrated the advantages of...

a) hot-water supply and panel heating;

b) reinforced concrete arches, metal frames, glass walls and prefabricated parts;

c) all modern conveniences for a dwelling.

2. Industrial type of construction involves...

a) better built and better equipped flats and houses;

b) theatres, cinemas, museums, libraries, etc.;

c) factories, food-processing plants, mines, office buildings, stores, etc.

3. Present-day designs for residential construction envisage …

a) movement of machinery and persons;

b) application of metal frames and glass walls;

c) all modern conveniences including hot-water supply and panel heating.

7. Доповніть незакінчені речення необхідними за змістом аргументами.

1. Housing construction has grown into a political issue because ...

2. In our country the research and development in housing technology is carried out on a national scale since ...

3. A house is acquiring a new and modern look for ...

4. The building techniques depend upon the types of buildings because ...

8. Висловіть заперечення до наступних невірних тверджень відповідно до змісту тексту.

З Р А З О К : Housing does not affect the level of living.

– This statement is incorrect. Housing affects the level of living. The improvement of housing shows a concrete and visible rise in the general level ofliving.

1. Not much attention is paid to the problems of construction.

2. Modern residential houses and industrial buildings are mostly built of bricks and timber.

3. Modern industrial buildings have demonstrated the advantages of plastics and ceramics.

9. Запропонуйте не менше, ніж три варіанти відповідей на кожне із запитань.

1. Why is a house acquiring a new and modern look?

2. What have ever growing housing demands brought into being?

10. Перечитайте текст і зазначте, які з перерахованих нижче проблем розглядаються в ньому.

1. New building materials for earthquake-proof structures.

2. Methods of constructing earthquake-proof structures.

3. The role of prediction of earthquake threats.

4. Methods of evacuating the inhabitants in case of an earthquake.

5. Some practical experience in constructing earthquake proof structures.

ЛІТЕРАТУРА

1. Горбунова Е. В. Современный город : [Пособие по английскому

языку. Для студентов строит. спец. вузов] / Е. В. Горбунова, М. М. Гришина, Н. И. Иванова и др. – 2-е изд., перераб. и доп. – М. : Высш. шк., 1986. – 143 с.

2.Камминг Джеймс. Английский язык для студентов архитектурных и строительных специальностей : [Учеб.] /Джеймс Камминг ; Предисл. к рус изданию и англо-рус. словарь проф. В.Н. Бгашева. – М : ООО «Издательство Астрель» : ООО «Издательство АСТ», 2004. – 270 с.

3.Мансі Є. О. Civil Engineering and Architecture (цивільне будівництво та архітектура): [Тексти до підручника з англійської мови для студентів і аспірантів немовних факультетів та студентів мовних факультетів, які вивчають англійську як другу іноземну мову у вищих навчальних закладах] / Є. О. Мансі, Т. В. Гончарова. – К. : Арій, 2008. – 80 с.

4.Мусихина О. Н. Английский язык для строителей. Практикум / О. Н. Мусихина, О. Г. Гисина, В. Л. Яськова. – Ростов н/Д : Феникс, 2004. – 352 с. – Серия «Высшее профессиональное образование».

5.Паніна О. В. Будівництво та навколишнє середовище : [Навчальний посібник] / О. В. Паніна. – КНУБА, 2003. –160 с

6.Разводовский В. Ф. Английский язык для будущих инженеров-строителей : [Пособие] / В. Ф. Разводовский. – Гродно : ГрГУ, 2010. –214 с.

7.Степанова І. С. English for Civil Engineering Career : [Навчальний посібник з англійської мови для студентів 3–4 курсів інженерно- будівельних спеціальностей] / І. С.Степанова, О. Р. Яковець. – Вінниця :

ВДТУ, 2000. – 67 с.

ДОДАТОК

Supplementary Texts

(Додаткові тексти)

Text 1. Building Materials

The mortars used in bricklayers' work consist of an admixture of lime, or Portland cement, and sand. A knowledge of the properties of these materials is very necessary to the craftsman, if he is to obtain the best results from his labours.

Lime is manufactured by the calcination, or burning, of a carbonate of calcium, of which chalk is the commonest example. During calcination, decomposition occurs, and carbonic acid and water arc driven off, an oxide of calcium (quicklime) remaining. If water be added to lumps of quicklime, rapid combination ensues, great heat and volumes of steam being generated. The lumps disintegrate with a series of small explosions, and are eventually reduced to a very fine powder. This process is termed slaking; and when making mortar it is highly necessary that it should be thoroughly carried out, as any unslaked particles subsequently expand and seriously damage the work. Limes may be divided into three distinct classes –

Rich limes.

Poor limes.

Hydraulic limes.

Rich Limes contain not more than G percent of impurities, slake very rapidly, and are entirely dependent on external agents for setting power. They are chiefly used for interior plasterers' work. Poor limes contain from 15 percent to 30 percent of useless impurities, and possess the general properties of rich limes, only to a lesser decree. They are only fit for unimportant work.

Hydraulic limes contain certain proportions of impurities, which, during calcination, combine with the lime, and endow it with the valuable property of setting under water, or without external agents. The proportions of these impurities determine whether a.lime is eminently, moderately, or only feebly ydraulic. The principal limes used in making mortar for constructional work are of the Greys tone variety. These have hydraulic properties, and will take a large proportion of sand, without weakening their setting powers. The usual proportions are from two to four parts of sand to one of lime.

The setting of lime depends largely upon its absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere. The particles return to their original form of a carbonate, and crystallize. These crystals have a tendency to adhere to anything rough, as sand or the surfaces of a brick.

Pure lime mortars built into thick walls never harden in the interior. The crystallization of the exterior of the joint when set prevents access of carbon dioxide to the inside of the wall. For this reason, pure lime mortars should not be used for constructional work, only those which are not entirely dependent on external agents. For more important work, where great strength is required, Portland cement is used instead of lime.

Portland Cement is an artificial cement, manufactured by calcining chalk and clay, or river mud containing certain chemical constituents in definite proportions. The chalk and clay are ground and mixed into a slurry, which after being strained through very fine sieves, is pumped into an orifice in the top of an inclined revolving cylinder. A blast of intense flame is directed through this cylinder, which is lined with firebrick. As the slurry drops through the flame, it is burned into small clinkers, which are afterwards ground exceedingly fine in specially constructed mills, and then passed through sieves, having as many as 35,000 meshes to the square inch. The powder is aerated by being spread on wooden floors, with an occasional turning, to ensure the thorough slaking and cooling of all particles. It is then put up in sacks ready for use.

This process of aeration has now been superseded in many cement works by the addition of a small quantity of gypsum (plaster of Paris), which retards the otherwise rapid-setting tendency of a freshly-ground cement.

Sand. – When used for mortar, sand should be angular in grain, free from clay or dirt, and moderately coarse. If too fine, the proportion of lime or cement will have to be considerably increased.

Mixing. – This should be carried out on a close-boarded platform, or stage.

In the case of lime mortar, sand is best measured when brought to the stage, and the heap opened out into the form of a ring. The correct proportion of lime is measured into the ring, clean water being added to start the slaking, and more as the process advances. When the generation of steam ceases, the mass should be stirred with a long-handled, hoe-shaped tool called a larry, until a thick, creamlike consistency is obtained. The sand may then be gradually drawn into and thoroughly mixed with the lime by means of the same tool. The mortar should be allowed to stand for some days before use and again well beaten up with larry and shovel.

For cement mortar, the sand is measured and heaped on the stage, and a bottomless box of definite capacity is placed on the top of the sand. This box is filled with cement, and then removed. The dry heap is turned over at least twice and opened out into a ring. Clean water is added in sufficient quantity to wet the whole mass, which is then thoroughly mixed in the same manner as lime mortar.

Cement mortar should be used directly after being made, and should not be subjected to further mixing after setting has commenced. If this is done, the cement rapidly loses its strength, and further repetition would render it practically inert.

The proportions of sand and cement or lime, are from two to four parts of sand to one part of either, according to the class of work for which the mortar is required.

Another mortar mix which is becoming popular, and which some engineers have proved to be stronger for some classes of work such as reinforced brickwork, is 4 parts of sand to 1 part of Portland cement and l/8th part of lime.

On large works, mixing is usually performed in a mortar mill, which consists of a pair of heavy millstones and a pan, or container into which the measured ingredients are fed. The mill, by reason of its large and rapid output, has a distinct advantage over hand-mixing. It also has many disadvantages unless operated by a reliable man. Grinding may be carried on to such a stage that the sand is ground so fine as to render the original quantity of lime or cement inadequate. Cement mortars may be also ground long after the initial setting has commenced, and thus rendered useless for the required purpose.

Text 2. Building Stones

Classification – Building stones are classified in a general way under the heading of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Igneous Rocks. – These are formed by fusion below the earth's surface.

Sedimentary Rocks. – All sedimentary rocks, which include sandstones and limestones, come under this heading. They are formed in deposits by the agency of water or winds, and are known as stratified rocks.

Metamorphic Rocks. — These may be either of the above when, changed in formation by heat and pressure. Marbles and slates come under this heading.

Granites. – Granites are igneous rocks made up of granular particles, the latter being crystalline, and usually composed of quartz, felspar, and mica.

Granite has never flowed out over the earth's surface as lava, but became consolidated at a great depth under extreme pressure.

Quartz. – The durability of granite depends largely upon the amount of quartz and its combination with other minerals, quartz being practically indestructible. Quartz, sand, and the chemical named silica may be said to be interchangeable terms.

Felspar is the most easily distinguished mineral and its colour varies considerably. The pink felspar is known as orthoclase, and is a potash felspar; this constituent is very characteristic in granite. Sometimes the white soda or lime felspar known as plagioclase is found. Felspars are commonly found with about equal quantities of quartz.

Mica is of two kinds: Muscovite, which is potash mica (light); and biotite, which is a dark brown, iron and other substances being present. The light micas are more stable.

The proportions of mica should be small compared with quartz and felspar.

Hornblende and augite sometimes occur and take the place of mica; the stone is then known as a syenite.

Iron pyrites produce oxidation and hydration either in the form of local spots, or as a uniform tinge of brown, and should always be looked upon as a fault.

The characteristics of a good granite are: fineness of grain, the disposition of the various minerals forming the mass, and the high percentage of quartz present.

Sandstones. – Sandstones are formed by the disruption of preexisting rocks due to the action of winds or moving water, the particles being deposited in beds, or strata. The chief constituents are the original quartz crystals (or grains) and the cement that binds them together. The quality of a sandstone depends upon the cementing material. The presence of an inferior cementing material is the chief cause of disintegration upon the exposed surfaces. The cementing materials are numerous, and may be silica, clay, iron oxides, calcite, or dolomite. Usually there is a combination of these substances, but one kind predominates. Sometimes the grains, or quartz crystals, are consolidated by heat and pressure as in quartzite. Sandstones vary from fine grain to coarse grit stone, whilst the colour depends chiefly upon the cementing material. Red, brown, and yellow are due to oxide of iron. White owes its colour to the combination of clear quartz with white argillaceous or clay-containing matter free from stains.

If the stone contains a high percentage of mica distributed along the planes of bedding it is known as a micaceous sandstone. Great care should be exercised in placing sandstones in the building so that the laminae are horizontal.

Limestones. – The chief characteristic of limestones is the presence of a largе proportion of carbonate of lime. They were formed chiefly by the accumulation of shells or calcareous skeletons of marine or fresh water organisms, which were deposited as sediment in the waters of seas or lakes. The common or chalk limestones are more suited for the production of lime. Thevoolitic limestones are of marine origin; they arc' composed chiefly of carbonate of lime, with other substances, such as carbonate of magnesia, silica, alumina, and iron. The oolite resembles the roe of a fish, and results from the accumulation of carbonate of lime around the small nuclei of fragmentary shells or grains of mud or sand. They are of spherical or oval shape, and can easily be seen with the naked eye. They vary in hardness and texture; some are fairly fine, others coarse and porous.

All limestones are soft when first quarried, but harden on- exposure to the atmosphere. The stone should be uniform in colour throughout in the case of both sandstones and limestones.

Text 3. Concrete Structures

Introduction. – Reinforced concrete is an excellent building material, adaptable to many uses. It is strong, lire-resistant, and durable when well made.

On the other hand, it is a heavy material, and its use generally results in rather bulky members so that its greatest field of usefulness is in relatively low buildings and in structures where its mass, rigidity, and strength arc advantageous. Tall buildings may be made of reinforced concrete but, when they are more than six or eight stories high, it is desirable to question the economy and advisability of such construction for industrial purposes. Structures built of concrete should be planned upon the basis of the characteristics of the material itself, and upon the essential nature of the construction processes. Concrete is not a substitute for structural steel in terms of member for member. Architects and engineers, figuratively, should throw away many of their ideas derived from experience with steel-framed structures, then tackle the project at hand on the basis of utilizing the concrete to the best advantage. Many have done this and are now producing plans for concrete structures that are both attractive and practical.

Here, as elsewhere, the designer should make sure that concrete Is the most desirable material for a structure and should give careful consideration to the general proportions of the structure and to the uses for which it is intended. Because of the nature of concrete construction, careful planning is needed in the first place because extensive alterations and radical changes of future use are likely to be both difficult and expensive.

Some General Principles. – The planning and the detail designing of concrete structures are so influenced and circumscribed by practical procedures and considerations that the engineer should attack such problems entirely upon the basis of the best use of this particular material. He should remember constantly that, except for possible precast members, he is creating a structure to be made of "artificial stone", of material placed in position in a plastic state so that it must be supported temporarily by something other than itself, and of a material that will and should conform to every detail of the surfaces with which it is in contact when the plastic concrete is deposited.

Not only does concrete improve with the use of good materials, but its quality depends largely upon the excellence of the workmanship used in its manufacture, the adequacy and thoroughness of its placement, and the care with which it is cured. The attainment of the intended high quality is almost completely in the hands of the artisans, who, in the field, convert heaps of aggregates, barrels of cement, and gallons of water into a structure for the use of man. Not only does its strength depend upon highly skilled labor, but the quality of its surface and the beauty of its appearance do likewise. It is foolish to forget these obvious truths. Yet occasionally such important operations are delegated to unskilled, inefficient workmen. Fortunately, this is the exception. Expert workmen produce surprisingly fine results.

When planning concrete work, an engineer should consider the following matters, along with many others:

1. Poured-concrete structures ordinarily try to act largely as continuous frames. This is inherent in their nature. In fact, if continuity is to be avoided without detrimental or objectionable cracking, special measures generally must be employed. Hence, the advantages of continuity can and should be utilized.

2. Since concrete is especially advantageous in resisting compression, its use is more desirable for columns and walls than for long- span beams. The arch, the dome, the cylindrical barrel, the rigid frame, the flat slab, and beam-and-girder construction are among the types most suitable for the use of concrete.

3. So-called "framed" connection are difficult to make in reinforced concrete. Junctions of beams to beams should be made by pouring the adjoining members monolithically if possible because, otherwise, it is difficult to provide for transverse shearing forces. When beams rest upon walls or columns, the construction joints should be located so that each beam has adequate bearing upon the supporting member.

4. Not only is simplicity of shape desirable in order to minimize the cost of formwork, but the duplication of parts permits the revise of forms. It is obvious that heavy forms high in the air are costly.

5. Architectural details should be planned with consideration not only for the fabrication of the forms but also for the removal or stripping of them without damage to the concrete, or undue harm to the forms themselves. The details should also be such that the concrete will conform completely and easily to all the contours, projections, and recesses of the forms without spelling, honeycombing, slumping, air-trapping, and surface imperfections.

6. As the desired surface texture of concrete structures is something to determine carefully in advance, the structure should be planned so that the desired effects will be attained. Good effects will not just happen of their own accord; the bad ones do that.

7. The sequence of pours and the location of construction joints should be determined during the general planning of a structure in order to ascertain that what is desired can be built practicably. The volume of concrete that can be placed in one continuous pour depends upon the capacity of the equipment and upon the nature and details of the structure. It is very important to avoid the incomplete placing of a pour by depositing a portion of the concrete at one time, then pouring additional concrete alongside or on top of the first part after the latter has only partly set. Settlement or displacement of forms, an attempt to vibrate or otherwise compact the concrete, and any other operations that disturb the original material after it has partially set but is not yet strong will generally damage the concrete. After the first part has hardened, there is likely to be an unexpected plane of weakness at the junction with that deposited later. Of course, a tall pier shaft may be poured almost continuously and over a period of many hours if the work is performed properly. However, this is seldom easy of accomplishment in the case of extensive foundations, walls, and floors.

Precast Concrete. – The use of precast-concrete members and parts of members is a matter that warrants careful study. The possible savings in formwork are obvious, but the handling of heavy pieces in the field may require special equipment. If portions of a structure are to be precast, the original planning should be based upon this fact, and all details should be worked out accordingly. Precast parts can be incorporated in an otherwise poured-in-place structure, but provision should be made for the support of these heavy pieces during construction. Most poured-concrete structures gain much from the stiffness derived from the continuity secured at the junctions of parts, whereas a building made of heavy, loosely connected, precast parts may be inherently undesirable. It is possible, however, to connect precast parts by means of poured sections at the junctions if proper bonding of reinforcement, is provided.

Although such procedures have not been common in the past, their use shouldbe investigated with an open mind.  Because of the possibility of appreciable economies, the use of precast parts will undoubtedly increase in the future.

ВИСНОВКИ

Виконання цих вправ допомагає сформувати у учнів уміння критичного мислення та навички висловлювати власну думку іноземною мовою, що дуже важливо для розвитку української молоді в сучасних ринкових умовах, з їхньою мобільністю, бажанням поїхати за кордон.

За формою завдань вправи поділяються на окремі види, наприклад, вибір правильного - неправильного варіанту, сполучення слів у реченні, розташування в певній послідовності, множинний вибір. За наповненням вони складаються з речень текстів. Їх виконання є по суті багаторазовим читанням уривку з конкретно поставленим в окремому випадку новим завданням. До кожного тексту передбачаються також вправи, що мають на меті розвиток вміння дати вмотивовану відповідь (спростувати твердження, дати відповідь на питання, що обмежується кількістю варіантів).

Зміст Додатків складають фахові текстові матеріали різного рівня понятійної та мовної складності, метою яких є розвиток умінь і навичок аналітичного читання, техніки перекладу.